EPA技术说明——高效节水型坐便器

美国EPA提供了一系列适用于污水处理系统的技术说明文件，供学习参考。

原文出处：EPA

翻译：阮辰旼、何雪妮

Wastewater Technology Fact Sheet

High-Efficiency Toilets

污水处理技术概况— 高效节水型坐便器

In 1992, Congress passed legislation requiring that all toilets sold in the United States meet a new water conservation standard of 1.6 gallons per flush (gpf). By 1992, in response to the growing need for conservation of drinking water supply resources, a number of metropolitan regions and 17 states had already instituted water conservation programs which included high-efficiency toilet requirements.

1992年，美国国会通过立法，要求在美国销售的所有坐便器都要达到每冲用水1.6加仑的新节水标准。到1992年，为了满足日益增长的保护饮用水水源的需要，一些大都市地区和17个州都已经制定了各自的节水计划，其中也包括了对高效节水型坐便器的要求。

A national water use standard for a high-efficiency toilet was necessary to address the problems with different states and communities having established different toilet water use standards.  A national standard eliminated the need for plumbing fixture firms to manufacture, stock, and deliver different products, and the difficulty for states in preventing the importation of high-water-use fixtures.

为了解决不同的州和社区所制定的不同的坐便器用水标准的问题，有必要在国家层面制定国家高效节水型坐便器的用水标准。国家标准的制订出台，解决了不同供应商所制造、储存和交付的不同产品的接口不同的问题，也解决了各州需要谨防进口的高用水量用水器具方面的难点。

High efficiency designs have significantly improved since they were first introduced. Despite the improvements, the industry continues to refine this technology. Based on consumer surveys, the majority of users are satisfied with the performance of the current designs.

高效率设计自首次推出以来已经有了很大的改进。尽管有了这些改进，行业仍在继续完善这一理念。根据消费者调查，大多数用户对当前设计的高效性能感到满意。

  Because toilets use is the largest proportion of indoor water used in a household, high-efficiency toilets achieve real water savings.

由于坐便器是家庭室内用水中占比最大的用水器具，高效节水型坐便器实现了真正的节水。  

The national high-efficiency toilet standard brings a range of questions and concerns for.  This fact sheet is intended to assist in answering the questions that the consumer, property manager, plumbing contractor, and utility manager might have about the high-efficiency toilet standards. 

事物均有两面性，国家层面的高效节水型坐便器标准也给人们带来了一系列的问题和担忧。本说明介绍旨在帮助回答用户、物业管理人员、管道承包商和公用事业管理部门可能对高效节水型坐便器标准提出的问题。

Studies indicate that converting to water efficient toilets, showers and clothes washers, results in a household water savings of about 30% compared to conventional fixtures.  A change to high-efficiency toilets alone, reduces toilet water use by over 50% and indoor water use by an average of 16%.  This translates into a savings of 15,000 to 20,000 gallons per year for a family of four.  Furthermore, more efficient plumbing products result in lower wastewater flow and increase the available capacity of sewage treatment plants and onsite wastewater disposal systems.

研究表明，与传统的用水器具相比，改用节水型坐便器、淋浴器和洗衣机，可使家庭节水约30%。仅仅是改用高效节水型坐便器，就可以减少50%以上的厕所用水量，使室内用水量平均减少16%，这意味着一个四口之家每年可节省15,000至20,000加仑水。此外，更高效的用水器具可以产生更少的污水流量，提高污水处理厂和原位污水处理系统的可用容量。 

The general public also benefits directly from water conservation measures.  Practiced on a wide basis, efficient use of water resources helps reduce the potential need during drought periods for water restrictions   such as bans on lawn watering and car-washing.  Savings to the consumer from lower water bills, depending on local water rates and actual use, can range from $50 to $100 per year. Many hotels, motels, and office buildings are finding that new fixtures are saving them 20 percent on water and wastewater costs.

公众也从节水措施中直接受益。普遍性的层面上看，有效利用水资源有助于减少在干旱时期采取限制用水措施的依赖，如禁止浇灌草坪和洗车。根据当地的水价和实际用水情况，每年用户从更低的水费支出中节省的费用，可以达到50到100美元。许多酒店、汽车旅馆和办公大楼发现，新的节水型用水器具为他们节省了20%的水和污水成本。

The principles of high-efficiency toilet design and operation reflect the shift from remvoing waste by using flushwater volume to increasing flushwater velocity to remove waste.

高效节水型坐便器的设计和操作原则反映了从利用冲水量到提高冲水速度来清除污物的理念上的转变。 

The design of the bowl contour became more vertical design to achieve the necessary increased downward velocity. Nevertheless, the bowl contour must ensure a shallow but large water surface towards the front of the bowl for adequate waste immersion. 

坐便器轮廓的设计变得更加垂直，以达到必要的提高下行流速的目的。然而，坐便器轮廓必须确保在前部有一个浅而大的水面，以便充分浸没污物。许多用户注意到，高效节水型坐便器的设计使得冲水时的漩涡比以前的坐便器要小。这是因为旋转的水产生的阻力或摩擦力会降低基本流速。

Some manufacturers use an enhanced front jet towards the bottom of the bowl to assist in waste removal.  But other toilets that have received top consumer survey ratings use no jet at the bottom.

一些供应商在坐便器底部使用强化的前喷射器来帮助清除污物。但是在用户调查中获得最高评价的坐便器往往不在底部使用喷射器。

Gravity-flow or pressure-assisted?

重力流还是压力辅助？

Two types of technology are available for both residential and commercial uses.  The most widely available is a high-efficiency modification of the conventional gravity flow toilet.  The other, the pressure-assisted toilet, utilizes pressurized air in the tank to achieve additional force.

目前有两种类型的技术可供住宅和商业使用。比较广泛应用的是对传统重力流坐便器的高效改造。另一种是压力辅助型坐便器，利用水箱中的加压空气来实现额外的水流推力。 

The choice between gravity and pressurized toilets usually hinges on two factors: noise, and the distinction between whether the maintenance is provided by the homeowner or by a building manager.  Pressure-assisted toilets are much less likely to clog than even the older, 3.5 gpf gravity toilets.  While many of the more recent models of high-efficiency gravity toilets perform as well as pressure-assisted models in tests, maintenance issues for heavy-duty use, or responsibility for maintaining multiple toilets, may lead to the decision to install pressure-assisted toilets.  Some states, such as New Jersey, require pressure-assisted toilets in commercial use.

在重力式和加压式坐便器之间的选择通常取决于两个因素：噪音，以及维护是由房主还是由物业管理者提供。压力辅助坐便器比老式的每冲用水3.5加仑的重力式坐便器更不容易堵塞。虽然许多较新的高效重力式坐便器在测试中的表现与压力辅助式坐便器一样好，但大量使用后的维护问题，或需要频繁维护多个坐便器的责任，可能导致用户最红决定安装压力辅助式坐便器。一些州，如新泽西州，要求在商业用途中使用加压式坐便器。 

Gravity toilets in buildings with cast-iron waste lines may clog more readily, because of the roughness of the interior of the pipe.   New buildings use PVC pipe, through which waste flows more easily.  Choosing pressure-assisted toilets for buildings served by cast-iron pipe may reduce maintenance needs.

由于管道内部存在粗糙度，在使用铸铁排污管道的建筑物中，重力式坐便器可能更容易堵塞。新建筑通常使用PVC管，污物会更容易流过。在使用铸铁管的建筑中，选择加压式坐便器可以减少维护需求。 

However, the greater noise from pressure-assisted toilets is a factor to consider when locating toilets near sleeping or working quarters. And the pressure-assisted toilet is generally more costly than gravity-flow. Gravity-flow toilets achieve the necessary enhanced water velocity largely through coordinated improvements of the siphoning features of the fixture. Indeed, some of the early experiences with high-efficiency toilets that clogged too easily were the result of designs that increased siphoning by choking down on the trap size.    Manufacturers responded by re-sizing the trap diameter nearer its original dimensions, and instead are coordinating the rim dimensions, bowl contour, and trap size to work in concert to enhance the force of the water and the siphoning function.

然而，如果坐便器所在的厕所靠近卧室或工作区时，加压式坐便器产生的较大的噪音是一个需要考虑的因素。而且，加压式坐便器的成本通常比重力流式的要高。重力流坐便器主要通过协调改进设备的虹吸功能来实现必要的流速增强。事实上，一些早期的高效节水型坐便器太容易堵塞的经验是由于设计上通过扼制疏水阀的尺寸来增加虹吸作用的结果。供应商的反应是将疏水阀的直径重新调整到接近原来的尺寸，而且是综合考虑了边缘的尺寸、坐便器的轮廓和疏水阀的尺寸的协调，来增强水流冲击的力量和虹吸的功能。

Pipe slope standards

管道坡度标准

The issue has been raised as to whether existing pipe slope standards are adequate to carry these reduced flows.  American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) tests indicate that the existing standards exceed performance requirements for drainline carry minimums.  Field studies similarly report very few complaints, representing problems with a few individual buildings.  The standards are under constant review, and any changes indicated would be recommended through normal procedures.

有人提出，现有的管道坡度标准是否能够适应流量的减少。美国机械工程师协会（ASME）的试验表明，现有的标准能够满足排水管道目前实际运行状况最低的要求。现场研究也很少有类似问题的投诉，说明只是少数个别建筑物的问题。这些标准也正在被不断地审查，任何修改将通过正常程序提出建议。

Consumer surveys, performed by utilities that have been implementing high-efficiency toilet programs (such as rebates), have shown that the vast majority of 1.6 GPF, high-efficiency toilets work well. For example, 90 percent of San Diego, CA, customers, and  95 percent of Austin, TX, customers reported that they were "satisfied" or "very satisfied" with their high-efficiency toilets; 91 percent of Tampa, FL, ratepayers said they would purchase the 1.6 gallon toilet again.    A review of multiple metropolitan area customer satisfaction surveys for the 1995-1998 period shows that, while performance  among  individual  high-efficiency toilet models varied, the large majority were rated at least satisfactory in performance, with most rated better than satisfactory.

由已经实施了高效节水型坐便器应用的公用事业部门进行的用户调查表明，绝大多数每冲用水1.6加仑的高效节水型坐便器运行良好。例如，90%的加州圣地亚哥的用户和95%的德克萨斯州奥斯汀的用户反馈说他们对高效节水型坐便器“满意”或“非常满意”；91%的佛罗里达州坦帕市的用户说他们会再次购买每冲用水1.6加仑的高效节水型坐便器。对1995-1998年期间多个大都市地区的用户满意度调查的回顾表明，尽管各个高效节水型坐便器型号的性能各不相同，但绝大多数的性能至少被评为令人满意，而大多数被评为优于满意。 

Some brands and models have drawn more positive responses from consumers than others, with specific models being withdrawn and added as research and design progress. Since 1992, when the national law was first passed, plumbing products have gone through several cycles of improvements, with each new generation bringing improved product performance and customer acceptance.   The marketplace has  responded to the move to the high-efficiency toilet standard so as to better serve customer requirements.

一些品牌和型号从用户那里得到了比其他品牌和型号更积极的反馈，随着研究和设计的进展，一些特定的型号被撤消和增加。自1992年国家层面的法律首次通过以来，该类用水器具经历了几个改进周期，每一代新产品都带来了产品性能的提高和客户的认可。市场对逐渐过渡向高效的标准变化趋势做出了反应，以便更好地满足客户的要求。 

The two complaints most often made against the high-efficiency fixture are somewhat more frequent clogging, and the perceived need for more frequent double-flushing.  A 1996 survey in New York City on customer satisfaction reported that building managers--who are responsible for maintaining a number of toilets--reported more frequent clogging, probably due to the smaller trap size of the toilet (designed    to    increase siphoning).  The high-efficiency toilet designs, as discussed in the section on operation and maintenance, cannot accommodate extraneous waste materials and non-flushables such as paper towels. Building managers should communicate this to their tenants.

对高效节水型坐便器最常提出的两点抱怨是更频繁的堵塞，以及认为需要更频繁地进行两次冲洗。1996年在纽约市进行的一项关于客户满意度的调查显示，负责维护一些坐便器的楼宇经理报告了更频繁的堵塞现象，这可能是由于坐便器的疏水阀尺寸较小（旨在增加虹吸作用）。正如在操作和维护一节中所讨论的那样，高效节水型坐便器的设计不能容纳不相干的污物和不应冲入下水道的物品，如纸巾。建筑物管理者应该向用户充分传达这一点。 

In a study of 100 homes in each of 12 North American cities, the incidence of double-flushing was virtually the same for homes with high-efficiency toilets as for those with conventional toilets.

在对北美12个城市的100个家庭的调查中，使用高效节水型坐便器的家庭和使用传统坐便器的家庭需要连续冲两次的发生率几乎相同。

The consumer choice of a particular high-efficiency toilet model must take into account the specifics of the application.  Key considerations include:

? To be sure the new toilet will cover the area, check the dimensions of the space in which the toilet is to be installed, including the ‘footprint’ of the old toilet.  

? If the drainlines are made of cast-iron rather than PVC pipe, the toilet may be more likely to clog.        Ensure    adequate maintenance, or consider a pressure-assisted model.  

? Pressure-assisted models tend to be more noisy than gravity-flush, so use caution when installing this type adjacent to sleeping quarters.  

? Ensure  the  availability  of  electricity  for electric-assisted models.  

? Some toilets have a taller seat height, which should be evaluated based on anticipated users (some higher seats will be less accessible to children).  

? Users in areas with high mineral content in the water    should    check    rim    hole dimensions, or consider a toilet with a holeless rim.

用户在选择特定的高效节水型坐便器型号时，必须考虑到应用的具体情况。主要考虑因素包括：

- 请检查安装坐便器的空间尺寸，包括旧坐便器拆除后留下的“痕迹”范围，确保所购买的新坐便器能够覆盖该区域。

- 如果排水管是由铸铁而不是PVC管制成的，坐便器可能更容易堵塞。为了确保坐便器的维护便利，或者可以考虑使用压力辅助型坐便器。

- 压力辅助型的坐便器往往比重力冲水型的噪音大，所以在安装这种类型的坐便器时要注意尽量不要与卧室相邻。

- 如果选购电动辅助型的坐便器，需要确保厕所内有电力供应。

- 有些坐便器的座圈高度较高，应根据使用者的体型身高情况进行预估是否合适（有些较高的座圈对儿童来说不太方便）。

- 水中矿物质含量高的地区的用户应检查边缘孔的尺寸（避免长期使用后结垢），或考虑使用无孔边缘的坐便器。

Purchase:  The buyer of the high-efficiency toilet should carry out the same type of research necessary for any significant purchase intended to be used for a long time.   Refer to current issues of consumer magazines that evaluate water-efficient toilets (frequently under article listings for water conservation fixtures).    Your water utility, individual plumbers, and the local plumbers' union or association may also be able to recommend certain models.  Look for manufacturers' guarantees.  By following these tips, purchasers of water conservation toilets can be fairly assured of getting a satisfactory product.

选购：购买高效节水型坐便器的用户，应该在选购前进行和选购其他打算长期使用的家用设备一样的“功课”，比如参考消费者杂志中对该高效节水型坐便器的评价）。用户所在的区域的自来水公司、个体水管工和当地的水管工联盟或协会也可以为用户推荐某些型号，也可以自己寻求供应商的意见。通过这些前期“功课”，购买高效节水型坐便器的用户可以相当放心地购买到一个满意的产品。

Installation: Proper installation is especially important for high-efficiency toilets.  Licensed plumbers who guarantee their work will make sure fixtures are installed correctly.  It is very important to follow the manufacturer’s instructions.   The proper flow cycle for high-efficiency toilets is shorter--usually about 45 seconds--than previous models.

安装：正确的安装对于使用高效节水型坐便器尤其重要。有执照的水管工可以保证他们的工作质量，确保固定装置的正确安装。遵循供应商的说明是非常重要的。高效节水型坐便器的一次冲洗的正常流量周期比以前的型号更短，通常为45秒左右。

If installing a water-conserving toilet to replace an old one, use new mounting bolts of the proper length, and be sure the old wax seal is completely removed before installing the new one.  Check and clear drain lines while accessibility is open.

如果安装高效节水型坐便器以取代旧式的坐便器，应安装使用适当长度的新螺栓，并确保在安装新坐便器之前完全去除旧的蜡封，以及提前清理排水管。

Operation and Maintenance:  The common advice "Don't use your toilet as a trash bin" is especially important.  High-efficiency toilets will not perform well if non-flushables, such as paper towels, are sent down the fixture.  There has always been a need for plungers and plumbing "snakes," and their use should be considered first when the toilet overflows or does not refill completely.

操作和维护：老生常谈的一条建议——“不要把坐便器当垃圾桶用”尤其重要。如果不应冲入坐便器的垃圾，如纸巾等，经常被仍入坐便器，那么高效节水型坐便器就不会有好的“表现”。一直以来，人们都会需要常备抽气式马桶疏通器和蛇形的疏通用细软管，当坐便器堵塞溢出或不能完全补水时，应首先考虑使用它们。

Since flapper valves require replacement about every five years, proper selection of replacement valves is a key maintenance consideration. A study conducted by the Metropolitan Water District of Southern California found that proper flapper valve model selection is essential for continued performance. Of the physically compatible replacement flapper valves, half the models left a toilet with less than 1.6 gpf--and the resulting incomplete flush had insufficient water to do the job the toilet was designed to do.   Since most hardware stores can stock only a few brands, there is no guarantee of compatibility. Industry standards groups are working to insure that after-market flappers will perform properly.   Getting the right replacement flapper value is worth the effort.

由于挡板阀大约每五年就需要更换一次，所以正确选择更换的挡板阀是一个关键的维护内容。南加州大都会水区进行的一项研究发现，正确选择挡板阀的型号对于坐便器持续正常工作的性能至关重要。在物理尺寸上可以兼容的替换阀中，有一半的型号会使坐便器水箱的实际容积小于每次冲水1.6加仑——由此产生的不完全冲水不足以完成坐便器设计的冲洗效果。由于大多数五金商店只能提供少数品牌的产品，因此无法保证用户可以买到的替换阀都可兼容。行业标准组织正在努力确保售后市场的挡板阀都能够正常使用。

A key problem affecting 1.6 gpf toilets is a result of the use of chemical in-tank toilet cleaners. All U.S. toilet manufacturers recommend against the use of chemical in-tank toilet cleaners, as the strong chemicals degrade the works within the toilet. Even  with  current  toilets  that  include chemical-resistant materials, chemical cleaners still increase the specific gravity of water and slow flushing velocity, interfering with performance.

影响每次冲水1.6加仑规格的坐便器效果的一个关键问题是在水箱内使用化学坐便器清洁剂。所有美国的坐便器厂商都建议不要使用水箱内的化学坐便器清洁剂，因为强烈的化学物质会使坐便器内的工程材料老化。即使目前的坐便器包括抗化学材料腐蚀性，但化学清洁剂仍然会增加水的比重，减缓冲水速度，影响性能。

NOTE: Most major toilet manufacturers maintain

1-800 number Consumer Hotlines (call the distributor or 1-800-555-1212). These hotlines are set up to address both non-technical and technical questions relating to installation, operation, and maintenance of high-efficiency toilets.

注意：大多数主要的坐便器厂商都设有消费者热线。这些热线的设立是为了解决与高效节水型坐便器的安装、操作和维护有关的非技术和技术问题。

A wide range of toilets that perform well are available in all price ranges, although very inexpensive (less than $100) imports may not carry the American National Standards Institute (ANSI) design standard (different from the water conservation 1.6 gpf standard) and not function properly.  In most cases, there is little relationship between price and performance.  The consumer choice recommendations listed above under "Limitations" will help customers select the right model for them. 

各种价格范围内都有性能良好的坐便器，包括一些非常便宜（低于100美元）的进口坐便器可能不符合美国国家标准协会（ANSI）的设计标准（与节水要求的每次冲水不超过1.6加仑的标准不同）。在大多数情况下，价格和性能之间没有什么直接关系。上文“局限性”中列出的消费者选择建议将帮助客户选择适合他们的型号。

The choice to retrofit based on cost recovery from water savings can be easily calculated at the local level based on water rates and the price of the toilet. For average water/sewer rates, household savings for  a  typical  four-person  household  is  about $50/year.

根据节水带来的的成本回收率来选择更换坐便器，结合各的具体情况上可以很容易地根据水价和坐便器的价格来计算。对于平均水/污水处理费，一个典型的四口之家的家庭节水约为50美元/年。

Other Related Fact Sheets

Other  EPA  Fact  Sheets  can  be  found  at  the following web address:

http://www.epa.gov/owmitnet/mtbfact.htm

1. Austin, TX “Common Questions and Answers about 1.6 gpf Toilets.”  Internet site at: [http://www.ci.austin.tx.us/watercon/toilet q.htm].

2. Consumers  Digest,  July/August:  51-52; Geary, D., 1997.  Low-Flush Toilets.

3.        Consumer  Reports,  “Low-Flow  Toilets”.

February, 1995: 121-124.

4. Consumer Reports, “In Search of a Better Toilet.” Internet     site     at [http://www.consumerreports.org/ Categories/YourHome/Reports/9805toi0.h tm].

5.        DeOreo, W.B., P.W. Mayer, and P. Lander.

Evaluating Conservation Retrofit Savings With Precise End-Use Data.  1998 Annual Conference, Water Resources, Vol. B - (2 of

5 Volumes) June 21-25, 1998, pp. 479-505, Dallas, Texas

6.        Koeller, J. M., W.P. McDonnell, and H.O.

Webster, III. After-Market Replacement of Flush Valve Flappers in Ultra-Low-Flush Toilets: A Study of Compatibility and Flush Volumes.

7. National Trade  Association  of  Plumbing Products Manufacturers, April 1998. Press Release. Report    Credits    Low-Flow Plumbing Products with Saving Water and Satisfying Customers.  Glen Ellyn, Illinois.

8. Nelson, J.O., N. Orrett, and J. Weber.  A “Choice” ULF Toilet Replacement Strategy.

1996 Annual Conference, Water Resources, June 23-27, 1996, pp. 175-197, Toronto, Ontario, Canada.

9. Osann, E.R. and J.E. Young.  April 1988.

Saving Water, Saving Dollars: Efficient Plumbing Products and the Protection of America’s Waters.  Prepared for American Council for an Energy-Efficient Economy, Washington, D.C.

10. Peak International, April 1996.  Ultra Low Flush Toilet    Program,    Customer Satisfaction Surveys. Prepared for the Metropolitan Water District of Southern California.

11. Plumbing-Heating-Cooling     Contractors (PHCC) - National Association. 1996. “Water Conservation”.   Falls Church, Virginia.

12. Swaffield, J.A. and L.S. Galowin.   “Solid Waste Transport Design Requirements. Design Engineering Charts for Drainage System Pipe Sizing”. Research Proposal to the American    Society    of    Plumbing Engineers Research Foundation.  Heriot- Watt University, Edinburgh, Scotland.

13. Water Resources, 1998 Annual Conference, Vol. B - (2 of 5 Volumes) June 21-25, 1998, pp. 165-173, Dallas, Texas.

14. Wirthlin Group, October 1995. A Survey of Ultra-Low-Flush Toilet Users. Prepared for The Los Angeles Department of Water and Power.

The mention of trade names or commercial products does not constitute endorsement or recommendation for use by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.